Federal Headship: A Brief Exposition of Romans 5:12-19

Driven out of paradise By. John Martin

Western civilization has prided itself on its rugged individualism. We honor those who take responsibility for their actions and we despise bearing the punishment for someone else’s errors. While there are some positives to having individualist principles, a refusal to lay that mindset aside can lead to many errors when interpreting specific passages in scripture. 

The Bible most definitely teaches that individuals are responsible for their actions; however, the Bible also teaches the idea of being represented by others. Federal headship is the theological term for this representation. Both Adam and Christ act as federal heads over specific groups of people. These principles are taught in many different places in scripture, but the most clear and succinct presentation of federal headship is found in Romans 5:12-19. By walking through this passage, we will cover the topics of original sin, imputation, and headship.

In the first eleven verses of Romans 5, Paul describes the peace that we have in Christ on the basis of our justification by faith. This peace is valuable and our justification is necessary because we are naturally enemies of God (Ephesians 2:3 describes us as children of wrath by nature). Verses 12-19 seek to explain that we are enemies of God not just because of our sinful actions but because of our sinful nature. This sinful nature is what makes us enemies of God and hostile towards Him. Without an understanding of this nature and the guilt it incurs, one can not comprehend the peace and righteousness that comes from justification.

“Therefore, just as sin came into the world through one man, and death through sin, and so death spread to all men because all sinned-”  Romans 5:12

The “therefore” at the beginning of the verse indicates that what follows builds upon what came before. Paul is about to explain why we are in need of reconciliation. Sin, which is lawlessness, came into the world through one man. Adam transgressed the law of God by eating of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. The command to not eat of this tree came with a warning. “For in the day that you eat of it you shall surely die” Genesis 2:17. Death was the result of Adam’s transgression. This death wasn’t limited to physical death; it touched the spirit of man as well. Before Adam’s sin, he had access to eternal life through the tree of life; however, after Adam’s sin he was barred from partaking of that tree. This is an important point because many people would like to attribute only their physical death to Adam and not their spiritual death. 

  Death was not limited to Adam. Death spread to all men because all sinned. Here lies a point of controversy. Is death given as an individual punishment on the basis of each individual’s sins or is death given as a punishment on the entire human race as a group? Reading our English translations can make this verse open to either interpretation; however, the Greek text isn’t as ambiguous. When the Greek text says “because all sinned”, it uses a verb tense called the aorist. This tense is used when the verb was performed and completed at a singular point in time in the past. By using the aorist tense, Paul is saying that all men sinned at one point in time and death was the result. 

  This is the point that Paul will continue to make in the rest of this passage: Adam acted as a representative of the entire human race and when he sinned all mankind sinned in him. Physical and spiritual death are a result of Adam’s sin. We also suffer from physical and spiritual death because God holds us responsible for sinning when Adam ate that fruit in the garden so many years ago. The aorist tense in verse 12 clearly has this in mind; however, if you are not convinced, do not fret. Paul still has seven more verses to convince you. Remember that every individualist bone in your body will revolt against this doctrine, yet our duty is to rightly interpret God’s methods found in His word, not impose our methods onto His word.

“For sin indeed was in the world before the law was given, but sin is not counted where there is no law. Yet death reigned from Adam to Moses, even over those whose sinning was not like the transgression of Adam, who was a type of the one who was to come.” Romans 5:13-14

    In these verses, Paul gives evidence for his statement that all men sinned in Adam when he ate of the forbidden tree. Although the Mosaic law had not yet been given, Paul claims that sin was still in the world. Paul also says that sin is not counted or charged to someone’s account where there is no law. However, people are spiritually dead (think Cain and Lamech in Genesis 4) and dying physically (Genesis 5 “and he died”) from Adam to Moses. How is this possible if individual sins are not charged to the individual’s account when there is no law? People from Adam to Moses stood guilty before God, but on whose account?

The reason death reigned from Adam to Moses even when there was no law is the covenant headship of Adam. When God created Adam, He entered into a covenant with him. Hosea 6:7 references this covenant and refers to Adam transgressing it. There was a law before Moses. This is why Adam could commit a transgression. God’s prohibition against eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil was the only negative law or prohibition given in God’s covenant with Adam. Now for those who lived under death’s reign from Adam to Moses, did they commit the same transgression as Adam? No. The garden was guarded by a cherubim and no one was allowed entry. So the only command with a death sentence attached was impossible to commit; yet death reigned from Adam to Moses even over those whose sin was not like the transgression of Adam. The reason these people died and the reason we still see people die today is the guilt inherited from our covenant head, Adam.

  So although there was no Mosaic law to be the means of bringing knowledge of sin, sin was still active in the world from Adam to Moses. Look at Cain, Lamech, and the whole world in Noah’s day. “The LORD saw that the wickedness of man was great in the earth, and that every intention of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continually” Genesis 6:5. This wickedness was an outward manifestation of the inward sinful nature and guilt inherited from Adam. They were by nature children of wrath and under the condemnation of God from the time of conception. David says, “Behold, I was brought forth in iniquity, and in sin did my mother conceive me” Psalm 51:5. We do not need to commit sin to be a sinner by nature. The very core of our being has been affected by our connection to Adam. 

Once again, the individualist background in the west will tempt you to loathe this doctrine, but let me point you to a few other instances of this representative theme in scripture. Noah uttered a curse on Canaan even though his father Ham looked at his nakedness. Israel was blessed for the sake of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Mephibosheth was brought into David’s palace and given a seat at the table because of Jonathan. Believers are counted righteous because of the righteousness of Christ freely given to us. This is the reason Paul belabors the headship of Adam over all of humanity. Adam is a type of Jesus Christ. He is a shadow that points towards the true substance in Christ. By using Adam as a type, Paul is setting the work of Adam and the work of Christ as parallels and comparing them so that we might learn something from both of them. This also is an important point to remember because whatever you distort in this passage about Adam will lead to an equal distortion in Christ. 

“But the free gift is not like the trespass. For if many died through one man's trespass, much more have the grace of God and the free gift by the grace of that one man Jesus Christ abounded for many.” Romans 5:15

    Paul begins his efforts of comparing Adam and Christ by setting their works opposite one another and contrasting their results. The work of Adam is the trespass while the work of Christ is the grace of God and the free gift. If we look at verse 17, we see that the free gift is defined as the righteousness provided by Christ. So Adam is a type or foreshadowing of Christ in which the function of their work is similar, but the results are very different. 

So how are the trespass and the free gift different? The trespass of the one man Adam has brought death to many, while the grace of God and the free gift found in Christ have abounded for many. Already we see two different groups of “many” forming in Paul’s thought and this becomes more evident as we move through this passage. Now let us consider the results of the trespass and the free gift.

“And the free gift is not like the result of that one man's sin. For the judgment following one trespass brought condemnation, but the free gift following many trespasses brought justification.” Romans 5:16

    The result or judgement that followed the one trespass of Adam brought condemnation. The word used here for condemnation in the Greek carries the meaning of a damnatory sentence. It is the type of sentence that a judge hands down upon a guilty individual. This is the same word used in Romans 8:1 when Paul says, “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus.” This condemnation can mean nothing else but guilt before the righteous judge of heaven and earth. So the “many” who fall under the one trespass of Adam are under the same condemnation and guilt as Adam. This “many” is none other than the “all men” who sinned at one point in time with Adam from verse 12. 

If there is any confusion about this assertion, we need only to consider the remainder of the verse where Paul contrasts the result of the free gift. The free gift of righteousness, even in the midst of innumerable sins, brought justification. Justification is God’s declaration that a sinner professing faith in Christ is not guilty on the basis of Christ’s righteousness. This is evident in verse 1 of chapter 5 where Paul says, “Therefore, since we have been justified by faith, we have peace with God through our Lord Jesus Christ.” The only reason we can have peace with God is the reconciling work of the son (Rom. 5:10). Isaiah 53:5-6 describes this reconciling work well by saying that our iniquities were laid upon Christ. He bore the crushing weight of God’s wrath for our sins. The reason Christ needed to bear wrath in order to redeem is because we are guilty and a punishment has to be paid. Therefore the free gift of righteousness which brings justification was paid for by the punishment of the spotless lamb, Jesus Christ. If condemnation is set in opposition to justification and justification means the declaration of “not guilty”, then condemnation must mean the declaration of “guilty” and the sentencing to just punishment. 

“For if, because of one man's trespass, death reigned through that one man, much more will those who receive the abundance of grace and the free gift of righteousness reign in life through the one man Jesus Christ.” Romans 5:17

   Paul once again asserts that Adam’s one trespass caused death to reign through him over everyone. Experience bears witness to this. There is nobody who escapes death, both physical and spiritual. All sinned in Adam; therefore, all experience the condemnation incurred by Adam. If justification leads to everlasting life, then condemnation leads to everlasting death. That is the nature of the comparison which Paul is using between Adam and Christ. This is the way Paul is using typology to convey both original sin (our inherited sinful nature and guilt in Adam) and justification (Christ’s righteousness counted to believers). 

Although Adam’s sin caused death to reign over all, the grace and free gift of righteousness reigns in life through the work of Jesus Christ. Once again the comparison is made. Adam’s sin brought imputed guilt upon all men because he is the representative covenant head over all humanity. Christ’s free gift of righteousness by grace brings imputed righteousness upon all the men under his covenant of which he is the head, the covenant of grace. The many found in Adam and the many found in Christ will come to a head in the next two verses.

“Therefore, as one trespass led to condemnation for all men, so one act of righteousness leads to justification and life for all men. For as by the one man's disobedience the many were made sinners, so by the one man's obedience the many will be made righteous.” Romans 5:18-19

   These final two verses act as a summary statement to everything found in the previous six verses. Adam’s one trespass was his disobedience to God by eating of the forbidden tree. This trespass led to condemnation (guilt) for all men. Christ’s one act of righteousness could be referring to his death, but the more likely option is a reference to his entire life. Christ lived his entire life as an obedient act of righteousness in order that all men might be justified and have life. 

Now we have a problem which federal headship solves. The condemnation of all men in Adam stands in comparison to the justification of all men in Christ. However, we have plenty of bible verses which plainly say that not all are saved. If every single individual is justified then why would we need to evangelize or warn of any sort of wrath from God? Yet we have evidence that every man is condemned in Adam because all men die. Death is the fruit of Adam’s guilt. The key to understanding this verse is realizing that “all” is referring to all who are represented by Adam and Christ. Once again we are back to the federal head issue. 

  Every single person is under Adam, who failed as the head of the covenant of works. We have driven this point home over and over beginning in verse 12 which says that “all sinned”. We all failed with Adam and our sinful nature along with the works it produces bear witness to that fact every single day. Conversely, not everyone who is under Adam is under Christ. In order to be under Christ you must be in the covenant of grace. To be in the covenant of grace you must be justified by faith alone in the work of Christ. So another way to word verse 18 is like this: All men in the covenant of works under Adam are condemned, while all men in the covenant of grace under Christ are justified. The word “all” has to be interpreted in light of the context or you will end up with the heresy of universalism, believing that everyone is saved.

 Finally, verse 19 addresses our natures. Adam’s disobedience made us sinners by nature. As mentioned before, we are by nature children of wrath. We do not have to commit a single trespass in order to be a sinner. We are conceived with a sinful nature and that in and of itself cannot stand before God. By contrast, Christ’s obedience in life and death makes us righteous. This isn’t our own righteousness. Christ’s righteousness is given to our account and he takes our guilt and applies it to His account. It is a great and marvelous exchange in which Christ reconciles us to God by being the obedient second Adam. 

Conclusion

   This is the doctrine of federal headship. We are condemned in Adam but in Christ we are justified. As individualists, we find it uncomfortable when someone attributes another’s failings to our account. However, if we reject the headship of Adam, then we must reject the headship of Christ. Paul holds these two ideas very closely together throughout this passage. Rather than fighting what scripture plainly teaches, let us humble ourselves before God’s word and cast ourselves in faith upon the obedient son, Jesus Christ.